Data Cleaning for Data Analysis in Sociology

Data Cleaning for Data Analysis in Sociology Data cleaning is a crucial part of data analysis, particularly when you collect your own quantitative data. After you collect the data, you must enter it into a computer program such as SAS, SPSS, or Excel. During this process, whether it is done by hand or a computer scanner does it, there will be errors. No matter how carefully the data has been entered, errors are inevitable. This could mean incorrect coding, incorrect reading of written codes, incorrect sensing of blackened marks, missing data, and so on. Data cleaning is the process of detecting and correcting these coding errors. There are two types of data cleaning that needs to be performed to data sets. They are possible code cleaning and contingency cleaning. Both are crucial to the data analysis process because if ignored, you will almost always produce misleading research finding. Possible-Code Cleaning Any given variable will have a specified set of answer choices and codes to match each answer choice. For example, the variable gender will have three answer choices and codes for each: 1 for male, 2 for female, and 0 for no answer. If you have a respondent coded as 6 for this variable, it is clear that an error has been made since that is not a possible answer code. Possible-code cleaning is the process of checking to see that only the codes assigned to the answer choices for each question (possible codes) appear in the data file. Some computer programs and statistical software packages available for data entry check for these types of errors as the data is being entered. Here, the user defines the possible codes for each question before the data is entered. Then, if a number outside of the pre-defined possibilities is entered, an error message appears. For example, if the user tried to enter a 6 for gender, the computer might beep and refuse the code. Other computer programs are designed to test for illegitimate codes in completed data files. That is, if they were not checked during the data entry process as just described, there are ways to check the files for coding errors after data entry is complete. If you are not using a computer program that checks for coding errors during the data entry process, you can locate some errors simply by examining the distribution of responses to each item in the data set. For example, you could generate a frequency table for the variable gender and here you would see the number 6 that was mis-entered. You could then search for that entry in the data file and correct it. Contingency Cleaning The second type of data cleaning is called contingency cleaning and is a little more complicated than possible-code cleaning. The logical structure of the data may place certain limits on the responses of certain respondents or on certain variables. Contingency cleaning is the process of checking that only those cases that should have data on a particular variable do in fact have such data. For example, let’s say that you have a questionnaire in which you ask respondents how many times they have been pregnant. All female respondents should have a response coded in the data. Males, however, should either be left blank or should have a special code for failing to answer. If any males in the data are coded as having 3 pregnancies, for example, you know there is an error and it needs to be corrected. References Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson.

Julian the Apostate and Fall of Paganism

Julian the Apostate and Fall of Paganism When the Roman Emperor Julian (Flavius Claudius Julianus) came to power, Christianity was less popular than polytheism, but when Julian, a pagan (in contemporary usage) known as the Apostate, was killed in battle, it was the end of Roman official acceptance of polytheism. Although paganism was popular, Julians practice was more ascetic than normal pagan practices, which may be why paganism failed when the Apostate reinstated it. From  Gore Vidals  Julian: Julian has always been something of an underground hero in Europe. His attempt to stop Christianity and revive Hellenism exerts still a romantic appeal. When the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate, died in Persia, his supporters failed to maintain support for paganism as the official state religion. It wasnt called paganism at the time, but was known as Hellenism and is sometimes referred to Hellenistic paganism. Instead of the ancient religion returning to the Roman Empire, the popular Emperor Constantines Christianity re-emerged as the dominant one. This seems odd since Christianity wasnt as popular among the people as Hellenism, so scholars have searched Julians life and administration for clues to why the apostasy (which means the standing away from [Christianity]) failed. Julian (born A.D. 332), the nephew of the first Christian emperor, Constantine, was trained as a Christian, yet he is known as an apostate because when he became emperor (A.D. 360) he opposed Christianity. In The Demise of Paganism, James J. ODonnell suggests that the emperors particularly vehement stance against Christianity (and support for the other monotheistic religion, Judaism) stems from his Christian upbringing. Julians Intolerance Although any such generalization is hazardous, pagans of the time generally held religion to be a private matter, while Christians behaved strangely in trying to convert others to their faith. They claimed that Salvation made possible through Jesus was the only true belief. In the wake of the Nicene Council, Christian leaders condemned all who failed to believe in the prescribed manner. To be a pagan in the old tradition, Julian should have let everyone worship as he or she wished. Instead of letting each person worship in his own way, Julian stripped the Christians of their privileges, powers, and rights. And he did so from their own perspective: the intolerant attitude that ones private religion is of public concern. From The Demise of Paganism: In summary, it is necessary to look upon the religious sociology of the fourth century with two separate (if often, and confusingly, overlapping) distinctions in mind: that between worshippers of Christ and worshippers of other gods; and that between men who could accept a plurality of worships and those who insisted on the validity of a single form of religious experience to the exclusion of all others. Julians Elitism Other writers say the failure of Julian to reintegrate Hellenistic paganism into the framework of Roman society came from his inability to make it popular and his insistence that true understanding is impossible to the average mortal, but is reserved for philosophers. Another important factor was that the Christian creeds were far more unified than paganism. Paganism wasnt a single religion and adherents to different gods did not necessarily support each other.   The panoply of religious experience in the Roman world before Constantine was simply bewildering: from back-yard fertility rites through public, state-supported cults to the mystical ascents of which Platonic philosophers wrote with such devotion- and everything between, over, under, and all around such phenomena. There were public cults indigenous to the various parts of the empire, certain generally (if often lukewarmly) accepted devotions such as that to the divinity of the emperors, and a vast array of private enthusiasms. That such a spectrum of religious experiences should produce a single-minded population capable of forming itself into a single pagan movement with which Christianity could struggle is simply not probable. Lack of a Powerful Pagan Successor to Julian In 363, when Julian died, he was succeeded by Jovian, a Christian, at least nominally, instead of the obvious choice, Julians praetorian prefect, the moderate polytheist, Saturninius Secundus Salutius. Secundus Salutius didnt want the job even though it meant continuing Julians mission. Paganism was diverse and tolerant of this diversity. Secundus Salutius didnt share the late emperors parochial attitudes or specific beliefs. No other pagan emperor came to power before the Roman state outlawed pagan practices. Even so 1,700 years later, we continue to be predominantly a Christian society in terms of our beliefs, it may have been the pagan attitude of religious tolerance that prevailed. Sources and Further References Ch.23, Part I of Gibbons The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.Julians Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice, by Scott Bradbury;  Phoenix Vol. 49, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 331-356.

ACCOUNTING FOR STRATEGIC & MANAGEMENT CONTROL Essay

ACCOUNTING FOR STRATEGIC & MANAGEMENT CONTROL - Essay Example There are numerous problems that face the BH Ltd in the control systems. To begin with the audits are not done effectively. There is need for the independent auditors to work on the BH Ltd accounts. The accounts are oftenly collected and sent to the Ave Co Plc.The company also experiences problems with the capital budgeting and the performance appraised on budgeting. (anonymous, 2008).The finance functions have also contributed to the disappointing results. The finance department has little interaction with either the individual or the regional managers. There is also a problem in the performance measurement systems. The key performance indicators are not effectively applied. According to Grahamme Steven, vital data from the organization must be obtained to produce the good results. There are however limitations of the data access due to the confidentiality by the managers who have chosen not to work with the headquarters. As we all understand our company acquired BH Ltd 4 years ago. It has been performing well and it has been a place where many people desired to go. However after the restructuring there has been a series of problems and disappointing performance. Shareholders and the customers have been on the watch over the performance of the company.Ordinarily, shareholders must have confidence in the published accounts so as to make the reliable investment decisions. The reduced ROI has been their point of concern as most of them threaten to quite the organization. The hotel occupancy rate has been rising at a slow rate. However there has been a question why the company is not performing well. I. Control systems. The control systems are generally weak giving a leeway to disappointing results. The company has been producing monthly management accounts to the headquarters. The accounts have revealed a reduced ROI yet there have been increased profits recorded. The accounts were made in dependency and secrets. There was therefore no transparency while

ARE PEOPLE BORN INTO POVERTY MORE LIKELY TO REMAIN IN POVERTY Research Proposal

ARE PEOPLE BORN INTO POVERTY MORE LIKELY TO REMAIN IN POVERTY - Research Proposal Example Despite significant progress being realized in these practices, it is observed that people born poor are more likely to remain in poverty. Thesis: people born in poor families are more likely to remain in poverty Research Questions a) What causes poverty? b) What is the government doing in eradicating poverty? c) Why are poor people more likely to remain poor? Literature review Overpopulation has been considered as one of the main causes of poverty among various individuals across the globe. This is argued from the fact that natural resources, which are the basic factors of production do not expand , while the population grows at an alarming rate. This makes it impossible for the resources to effectively meet the needs for the population; thus, some are deprived access, which make them poor. Poor people usually lack sufficient information on reproduction and family planning. This makes them reproduce at higher rate that the wealthy. This puts strain on the resources at their disposal , making it hard for them to improve their lives. In this regard, governments have implemented various strategies such as providing family planning medication and education to the poor in a bid to counter overpopulation. In some countries such as china, there are regulations on the number of children one can bear, and failure to adhere to the law leads to prosecution. The distribution of resources affects the poverty levels of various persons across the globe; in developed countries, resource distribution among the citizens is fair, while in developing and underdeveloped countries, resource distribution is skewed towards the rich (Cullen, 2010). Though much has been done, in developing countries, to improve the distribution of resources, success levels have been low due to lack of sufficient knowledge. In developing countries, factors such as poor governance manifested through corruption makes the resources available to the wealthy and powerful. This therefore deprives the poor a ch ance to improve their lives and thus there is a high possibility of them living poor for their entire lives. In a bid to ensure that the lives of the poor are enhanced, various strategies to fight corruption have been made by various governments across the globe. Education is an important tool in the realization of the anticipated person or institutional goals. Proper education ensures that individuals are able to interact well with other persons irrespective of the cultural or religious backgrounds. Interaction with various persons may open avenues to better future to an individual (Phan, Hayden & Harman, 2010). Though education, one may get a better job, which will help a great deal in improving his/her life as well as that of those around him. To get better education, one has to study at best institution. This is only available to the rich as they are able to cater for the fees as well as other costs associated with studying. The poor have less capacity to attend such institution s and thus study in low –standard institutions. In extreme cases, they do not study, as they have to look for money to meet their basic needs. In such cases, they are not informed of developments made by the country and usually make bad decision, and this makes them unable to get out of poverty. In a bid to ensure that a higher percentage of the population is educated, some government governments have implemented free education and loans to finance studying

Users of financial information and their informational needs Essay Example for Free

Users of financial information and their informational needs Essay Users of accounting information are either internal or external to the organization. These users need information to help them make informed or reliable decisions or judgements with regards to the organization. Different groups have different demands for the financial information contained in a set of accounts. Information needs of internal users These include; Management; This category is made up of the senior employees who run the organization on a day- to- day basis. They are interested in information such as, Finance of the organization (working capital) The growth prospects (value of shares and dividends) Employees ; This is the group of workers in the organization made up of existing potential and past employees. The members of this group are concerned with job security and future prospects. Therefore, they need information to assess the company’s profitability, liquidity and growth prospects. Employees need information about The financial state of the organization ( for their salaries) The growth and stability of the organization ( new investments ) to ensure continuity of employment. Profitability. Others are informational needs of external users including Customers; Those who buy from the organization either for cash or on credit are interested in; The profitability The growth and stability ( new product lines) Customers will also need information or price so they can assess whether the company is overcharging them or not. General public; This group includes the taxpayers, the consumer, social groups such as environmental societies and pressure groups such as the media organizations. Each individual group informational needs depend on its own particular interests. They require information on; Annual Reports (including financial statements) social costs to ascertain the effects and influence of operations on the society and the environment. Governments; This group includes all government or government linked authorities such as tax authorities ( internal revenue service ) local authorities and the department of Trade and Industries. The investment regulatory body are also included in this group. This group requires information to assess whether companies have complied with the relevant legislation and also to generate statistical measures to help them to assess and form macroeconomic policies. They require information such as; Financial statements Payroll summaries Income tax deductions and social security contributions.

Should We Continue To Commemorate Wars? :: essays research papers

Should we continue to commemorate wars? Discuss with reference to specific examples. Throughout the course of this essay I will be discussing whether or not we should continue to commemorate wars, I will be mainly referring to Armistice Day and Remembrance Sunday as my examples because these are the biggest commemorations for any of the wars in British history. Among all of the ceremonies and silences that occur throughout the year, there is still a tendency for people to forget what they are commemorating and remembering. When we commemorate wars, for example on remembrance weekend, we are remembering tens of thousands of people who died defending the country against evil; we also remember the people who these people loved and the loss that they encountered. We commemorate Armistice Day because it is 80 years to the day since World War One ended and the two-minute silence is to commemorate this. The silence, says the Royal British Legion, is "to remember the brave men and women who fought so courageously and with such sacrifice to secure the freedom which you and I enjoy today". On Remembrance Sunday there is another two minutes silence at eleven o’clock. The poppies worn and laid are a mark of respect for those who have died in wars everywhere in our name. Also a march past by veterans from wars symbolises the suffering and pain that goes on everywhere today and that is endured by some many. Commemoration is a time to reflect on the fact that our entire way of life is predicated on the sacrifices and courage of those that came before us and fought for our respective nations. It takes more courage than most of us can imagine risking ones life for an intangible goal such as victory for a nation. It has long been held that we should honour our past soldiers, to that honour I say that we should add thanks and deference. I think that commemorations should be an opportunity for all people but especially the young to thank and be grateful for the service of the forces and civilians during both the world wars. The sacrifices made and that are still having to be lived with by some should never be forgotten These commemorations means to me a time when the memories of those soldiers who gave their lives for the causes of peace are appreciated by people who have benefited from this.

‘Mugged’ by Andrew Payne: Analysis Essay

The script ‘Mugged’, by Andrew Payne, follows a group of teenagers and how they each react differently to the medias â€Å"made-up† viewpoints after one of their friends in murdered. The script effectively manipulates the dramatic elements of tension, language, place and symbolism to invoke change upon its audience, making them reassess their views/opinions on how adolescent youth are portrayed by the media. Tension of relationships was created throughout the text of ‘Mugged’. The script demonstrated an advanced use of tension of relationships (intimacy) in the first two scenes between Marky and Dig. The script establishes the intimate relationship between the two boys as they share their stolen goods, their bond grows as they share food and swap their goods. Their relationship develops even further when Dig tells Marky he has a crush on Soph and Marky then gives him relationship advice. This reveals the bond between the two and establishes the intimacy of their friendship. Tension of relationships (intimacy) was successfully created through the friendship of Marky and Dig as they share the secret of what they have stolen, and discuss Dig’s feelings for Soph. Relationships in the script where used to create language. In the text of ‘Mugged’ language was used to help create a didactic dramatic meaning. In the script verbal language is effectively used when Taylor refers to a man as â€Å"some old geezer† and when Leon calls Sophie a â€Å"skank† this reveals Leon’s and Taylor’s lack of respect for other people. Body language is also effectively used in the script after Marky is murdered and Dig is found â€Å"Sitting on the right-hand bench. Hunched over looking at the ground in front of him.† This shows that Dig was in great mourning and shutting everyone out. The language used in the text was successful because it demonstrated Leon and Taylor’s lack of respect towards others and how Dig became depressed after the death of his friend. Language and place can often be associated together. Place was established in the script of â€Å"Mugged† when certain characters described the environment surrounding them. This was evident when the  teenagers where describing what was happening when Marky was approaching the muggers, by having the teens describe what they saw, example: â€Å"He’s going up to the playground† â€Å"They’re standing by the fence† â€Å"Get away form the benches†, this successfully establishes a place because the description created by the characters creates a picture of where the scene is taking place. The place can have an effect on the symbolism created in the text. The symbolism used in the script of ‘Mugged’ helped create a deeper meaning to the script. The park benches demonstrates a successful use of symbolism within the script. The benches represented a sense of diversity. When Marky and Dig where siting on the bench, once Leon and Taylor arrived they had to move to the other bench because of the diverseness between the groups, after Marky is murdered all the teenagers are seated on the same bench, while the media sits on the other, this showed how Marky’s death brought the group of youths together and that the media and teenagers had a sense of diversity between them. The benches are an example of successful symbolism in the script because they represent a deeper meaning beyond their physical appearance. Symbolism can play a main role in invoking change upon the audience. Invoking change forces the audience to rethink their viewpoints on a certain subject, in â€Å"Mugged† the script makes the audience reassess their views on how adolescent youths are portrayed in the media. The script achieves this by showing how the media portrays an innocent teen, into a violent gang member within a day of his death, this makes the audience rethink what to believe the media tells them. Through its effective and successful use of the dramatic elements of tension, language, place and symbolism, â€Å"Mugged†, by Andrew Payne, successfully invokes change upon its audience, making them reassess their views/opinions on how adolescent youth are portrayed by the media.